In the reading from Essential Tibetan Buddhism, Thurman presents a good review of many of the concepts we have addressed this semester, including tantra. He emphasizes the tantra's role as an incredibly powerful vehicle, and one that requires a strong foundation to approach (ETB 23-25). Like many of our other readings, Thurman highlights the importance of a mentor, or guru:

"The mentor is the key element that makes the teachings practicable" (ETB 23).

Finally, Thurman uses the analogy of the Dharma as a medicine, and the mentor as a physician. I have always found this analogy to be useful because it illustrates the highly individualized nature of the Dharma as well as the importance of having a mentor: it is not enough to have an assortment of medications; one must also have a physician to appropriately prescribe them. This brief review was helpful in reaffirming the basics of tantric practice.

Thurman goes on to recount a brief history of Tibet in Essential Tibetan Buddhism and Inner Revolution. He introduces Milarepa--who we will learn more about in the coming weeks--as the first Tibetan to become a perfect Buddha in one lifetime (ETB 29). I found Milarepa's story to be an interesting one, particularly because of the story of his early life. He killed all of his uncle's descendants out of a desire for revenge, but was somehow able to repent with the help of a spiritual teacher, Marpa, who allowed him to

"redirect the negative evolutionary impetus he had generated by killing so many people" (IR 229).

This story is quite an amazing example of the "shooting down" of unripened karma, and surely provides a great deal of hope for Buddhist practitioners who have a sinful past. Another element of the story which I believe might make it interesting to Buddhists is the fact that he was a commoner. The fact that a commoner became a Buddha in his own lifetime must be inspiring to practitioners. Considering these descriptions of Milarepa, one question I have is the following: to what extent should we see Milarepa as a historical figure, and to what extent should we look at him as a pedagogical aid? This is something that I always wonder when we look at figures like Milarepa and Vimalakirti in Buddhism, and Luke and John (for example) in Christianity.

Thurman then describes Communist China as a violent force, as he has done in the past, which is constantly trying to attack and undermine the independence of Tibet. He argues that Tibet is a success story for refugee communities in the face of such a constant threat (ETB 41).

The history of Tibet is also explored by Powers, who takes a particular interest in the people of Tibet. According to Thurman, the pursuit of happiness for Tibetans is to become Buddhas (ETB 42). This is of note to Powers, who claims that

"much of Tibet's history comes from what Tibetans believe, and this informs their world-view" (Powers 140).

Taken together, the ideas of Thurman and Powers suggest that the unique interests of Tibetans are precisely what makes the history of Tibet so rich. This is substantiated by the fact that spiritual transformation is one of the common themes in the history of Tibet.

The fact that the Dalai Lamas would eventually come to be spiritual and political leaders of the country demonstrates how much the country's history is influenced by the worldview of its people. Powers provides an account of several of the Dalai Lamas who ruled over Tibet, starting with the Great Fifth Dalai Lama. The Fifth Dalai Lama is described by both Powers and Thurman as an influential leader who was the first Dalai Lama to have both temporal and spiritual power over Tibet. He had a more significant influence over Tibet's history than most other Dalai Lamas, like the Sixth and Seventh Dalai Lamas, whose reins were less consequential. I was interested and amused by Powers's description of the Sixth Dalai Lama, who was regarded for his romantic poetry about his affairs with women and had an unsuitable temperament (Powers 171). This brought me to the question of how such a person (Powers describes him as a playboy) could even become a Dalai Lama in the first place. From Powers's description, the Sixth Dalai Lama seems to be entirely unqualified for the position. A broader question that I have is how exactly someone "becomes" a Dalai Lama. Is there a selection process, or are Dalai Lamas born?

Finally, I was struck by Thurman's discussion of the secularization of the West, and the implications that had for the West's development. Thurman seems to have a cynical outlook on the materialism of Western civilization, arguing that the West has perverted some of the innovations of the East: for example, we used Eastern technology to develop nuclear weapons which eventually became one of the greatest existential threats to humanity (IR 245). Thurman believes we must

"unhitch modernity from its Western materialistic form"

and find alternatives to our fixations without reverting to the premodern consciousness and lifestyles (IR 256). I agree with Thurman, and I think this could be a profound challenge considering just how entrenched our culture is in materialism.